Alcoholism and Public Health Law Essay

Alcohol consumption poses a threat for many public health harms. Impaired driving is one of the largest contributors to motor vehicle crashes (Burris, Grunwald, Anderson, &ump; Filippoli, 2011). In the United States each year roughly 13,400 people die and an additional 255,500 are injured in motor vehicle crashes involving an alcohol-impaired driver according to Burris et al., 2011. In 2006, these crashes accounted for almost a third of all U.S. traffic-related deaths (Burris et al., 2011). Alcohol is the most commonly abused substance in the United States according to Pandrea, Happel, Amedee, Bagby, &ump; Nelson, 2010, and studies show that reducing alcohol consumption can lead to public health improvements such as decreased incidence of â€Å"liver cirrhosis, delirium tremens, male suicide, criminality, hospitalizations, alcohol-related disease mortality, workplace injuries, STDs, IPV, rape, robbery, and severe violence towards children† (Jernigan). Public heath deals with m any other issues that cause burdens to individuals and society alike such as obesity and gun use. Over the past several months, headlines in the news have been echoing â€Å"Chocolate Milk Removed from School Lunches,† and â€Å"Senate Considers Federal Tax on Soda.† While the removal of chocolate milk from school menus has actually happened in certain school districts across the country, federal tax on sodas has only been a proposal at this point. However, both echoes resounding through the news originated from escalating research that America’s twin epidemics of diabetes and obesity are due to diets high in sugar. The end result is that the actions taken to fight obesity have not been classified as either effective, uncertain, or harmful consistently through studies and research because there are too many variables like genetics, other sugar-loaded beverages and foods on the shelf, lack of exercise, abundance of video games, and the lifestyle one is accustomed that contribute to obesity as well. But even with the slightest inclination eliminating chocolate milk or federal tax on soda will eliminate sugar from obese population’s diet and thereby reduce weight, support groups and supporting research seem to load up the band wagons. Alcohol abuse is certainly an epidemic, and the domino effect of negativity it can cause in one’s life and surroundings creates a dismal forecast into the future of American public health somewhat similar to the obesity epidemic. Obesity and alcohol consumption act as a comparison between two similar, yet contradictory issues, much like public health and  public health law. High-risk drinking results in many consequences for public health and unlike obesity and soda tax, a multitude of systematic literature reviews conducted by highly-regarded scholars and published by credible organizations or peer-reviewed journals prove taxes that increase the price of alcohol effectively reduce overall alcohol consumption. Although ways to reduce alcohol consumption are not made glamorous in the news like many other trending public health epidemics, alcohol abuse is one of the few conflicts public health epidemiologists and economists have derived a bullet proof plan of action to effecti vely reduce its harmful effects. This manuscript serves as an evidence brief summarizing the problem, the law, the evidence, and the bottom line pertaining to the effect of increasing tax levels on alcohol use, and to prove why understanding public health law and policy is essential in bridging the gap between proven studies performed by public health professionals and the legislators and lobbyists who can implement the findings. Using the current state of obesity as an example was merely to cast light on the standstill alcohol abuse is undergoing, which ultimately resides in the poor connection between public health research and public health law. However, it is worth noting that other strategies exist to control alcohol abuse besides trying to impose what some may call a â€Å"sin tax,† such as comprehensive prevention programs: 1) Offer and promote social, recreational, extracurricular, and public service alcohol-free options; 2) Create a social, academic, and residential environment that supports health-p romoting norms; 3) Limit alcohol availability both on and off campus; 4) Restrict marketing and promotion of alcoholic beverages both on and off campus; and 5) Develop and enforce policies and laws at the campus, local, state and federal levels (The Demand for Alcohol: The Differential Response to Price, 2005). The elements of a comprehensive prevention program limit some of the damage caused by alcohol abuse but the epidemic flows forward. Numerous epidemiological studies have demonstrated that alcohol use disorders (AUDs) such as alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence are widespread in the general population of the United States, with approximately 8.5 percent of adults having had an AUD in 2007 (Falk, Yi, &ump; Hiller-Sturmhofel, 2008). Moreover, many people suffering from AUDs also suffer from one or more other psychiatric disorders, including other drug use disorders (DUDs), mood  disorders like major depression, anxiety disorders, or personality disorders like antisocial personality disorder (Falk et al., 2008). Falk et al., 2008, also reported the prevalence of alcohol use and AUDs is much higher among people with drug use and DUDs, respectively, than vice versa. This reflects the fact that alcohol is much more widely used than other drugs may be a gateway to the use of illegal or mo re potent drugs (Falk et al., 2008). Falk et al., 2008, reported that their results showed a dose-response relationship between the two classes of substances, with rates of drug use, weekly drug use, and DUDs increasing â€Å"monotonically with increasing levels of alcohol consumption and the presence of AUDs.† The descriptive study by Falk et al., 2008, not only portrays the grim effects of alcohol abuse but is also just one of the many credible reviews providing prevalence estimates providing health care policymakers and treatment planners with a â€Å"comprehensive assessment of the state of the use, co-use, and co-morbidity of alcohol and other drugs in the United States.† The flow of abuse and effects unfortunately does not have a dam, and floods further along into public health. Justice, Lynn, &ump; Fiellin, 2010, have shown that past and present alcohol consumption directly influences HIV progression and survival by altering timing of, adherence, and response to medication designed to minimize levels of HIV in the body like antiretroviral treatment (ART). Alcohol use also influences patient outcomes by increasing the risk for HIV and antiretroviral associated co morbidities, including liver disease, cardiovascular and cerebral vascular disease, pulmonary disease, bone disease, and cancer (Justice et al., 2010). Those with HIV have a lower tolerance for alcohol, according to Justice et al., 2010, yet preserve intense levels of consumption as they age and the growing effects of past and current alcohol consumption is likely to increase because patients with HIV infection are expected to live 20 to 30 years with ART. Lamentably, alcohol is a terror that looms around society and affects the weak and strong alike. Strong populations mostly include college and university students, who likely do not have HIV or AUDs or DUDs while pursuing a higher education. However, 25 percent of students report academic problems caused by alcohol use according to The Demand for Alcohol: The Differential Response to Price, 2005. Students who practice high-risk drinking are at risk for a host of problems, including: 1) A decline in academic performance  due to poor grades, missed classes, and falling behind that may lead to academic probation or dropping out of school; 2) Engaging in unprotected sex; 3) Increased risk of perpetrating or being a victim of violence, including sexual assault, hazing, vandalism, and fights; 4) Health problems related to alcohol use; and 5) Injury, arrest or death due to drinking and driving, or other alcohol-related causes (The Demand for Alcohol: The Differential Response to Price, 2005). Much like concrete cracking and eventually more and more cracks ensuing, are the secondary effects alcohol abuse has on campuses. Firstly, drinking undermines the goal institutions of higher education set forth, since heavy drinking leads to a decline in academic performance. Furthermore, heavy drinking can affect the campus as a whole through reducing retention rates, increasing expenses due to damage from vandalism, and branding the institution as a party school. The â€Å"party school† image may attract students who choose to be in high-risk settings, increasing the likelihood of alcohol-related incidents on campus (The Demand for Alcohol: The Differential Response to Price, 2005). Students who do not drink may also experience negative consequences of alcohol use by their peers according to The Demand for Alcohol: The Differential Response to Price, 2005. Effects may include study or sleep interruption, taking care of a drunken friend, having an unwanted sexual advance, hav ing property damaged, and being a victim of violence including physical or sexual assault. Over three-quarters of students living on campus have experienced at least one of the negative secondary effects of alcohol use at their school (The Demand for Alcohol: The Differential Response to Price, 2005). Perhaps a creative genius health professional strategizes a prevention program that eliminates alcohol consumption, only a short duration of time will pass and the marketing departments of major breweries will promote their brand in a way to pull the public right back into the flow of intake. Or maybe no successful prevention program forms, but raising the excise taxes on alcohol is being accelerated by legislature efforts in order to reduce alcohol consumption and abuse. In this case, consistent industry political donations and lobbying aimed at keeping alcohol excise taxes from increasing are in place for these companies profiting from their unhealthy product. The primary problem this brief sought out to analyze is alcohol abuse and the extensive list of problems discussed in detail above it  causes. The problem paves the way to the law. And given the circumstances that stricter law enforcement and prevention strategies have only resolved a minute fraction of the problem, the law is the answer as it offers a glass ceiling. No federal tax increases have been implemented since 1991 and many states, although legislative efforts have been accelerating across the country, have failed to increase the tax. However, tax law in the epidemic of alcohol abuse, is the solution with most opportunity for proving effective. Burris et al., 2011, define tax law as a mechanism for reducing consumption of unhealthy products. The same news that reported the removal of chocolate milk from selected school districts has reported increased taxes on cigarettes, so it is simple to understand that both the federal government and the states have used taxes as a means of increasing the cost of products associated with health risks in the past. Taxes can be levied upon the production and or sale of alcohol and are often described as excise taxes Burris et al., 2011, have reported. According to the Federation of Tax Administrators, almost every state taxes the sale or production of beer, liquor and wine (Burris et al., 2011). Nevertheless, increasing alcohol tax is not as straightforward and effortless as simply applying the definiton of tax law to the problem and stepping away. State readiness to act on alco hol tax research findings marks the beginning of constructing the bridge that will essentially connect public health to public health law. Many key factors are subject to broad consensus among members of the Coordinating panel and other participating experts (Tremper &ump; Mosher, 2005). Components that are most important are the budget deficit or other substantial need for the state to raise taxes, the strength of the advocates/coalition that would introduce research findings, and the availability of funds that can be used for legislative advocacy. Items of decreasing importance are existence and efficacy of a lobbyist for the issue, well-positioned champion in both houses of the legislature, and the political strength of the alcohol industry and its allies. Other factors include support of the governor, permissibility of earmarking, high proportion of nondrinkers, high proportion of evangelicals and/or fundamentalists, and support of major media (Tremper &ump; Mosher, 2005). Discussion of the former findings serve as a starting point for analyzing the conclusions of specific literature reviews that increasing alcohol taxes  improves public health and that various factors affect the likelihood that research findings will influence alcohol tax policy. After the preliminary analysis, possibly the most important finding to extract is the consent among alcohol tax advocates, legislative process experts, advocates who have successfully used research findings to influence tobacco tax policy, and other interested parties in regard to state tax policy, and whether a state needs to raise taxes for financial reasons. Tremper &ump; Mosher, 2005, have stated that in practical terms reflecting political realities, if a state is not facing a budget deficit, raising alcohol taxes to achieve public health benefits is highly unlikely. Continuing strain on state budgets has a high likelihood of continuing; therefore, raising taxes is going to be on most states’ legislative agenda for the projected future. Another important finding that bodes well for alcohol tax to appear on legislative agendas is that alcohol taxes are low by several measures and in some states have not been raised for decades, which means that inflation has reduced them t o a fraction of their previous level (Tremper &ump; Mosher, 2005). For example, had the beer tax merely kept up with inflation, it would be more than three times today’s rate of $18 per barrel; the liquor tax would be more than five times its current rate of $13.50 per proof gallon (Alcohol Taxes on the Federal Front, 2005). As prices rise, the relative importance of the taxes falls, unless Congress raises them according to the website Alcohol Taxes on the Federal Front. The website further foes on to state statistics indicating beer and wine taxes have been raised only once in the past 55 years, liquor taxes only twice and as a result, tax revenues that accounted for 12 percent of the sales of alcohol in 1980 now amount to only 7 percent of total sales. The result is a de facto subsidy on drinking and extra profits for alcohol manufacturers at the expense of taxpayers (Alcohol Taxes on the Federal Front, 2005). CONCLUSION: The beer industry has long opposed raising taxes on its products, even maintaining that they should be lowered. However, lower beer taxes would only add to the deficit, cater to a prosperous industry, reward and encourage heavy drinking, and attract more young drinkers, fueling increased alcohol problems and increasing public costs. The best interests of consumers, young people, the U.S. Treasury, and the public health and safety  of America would be better served by raising, not lowering beer taxes. (Alcohol Taxes on the Federal Front, 2005)

Exploratory Research Assignment Essay

Canadian’s first choice for an alcoholic beverage? Beer. Not only is beer a refreshing beverage on a hot, sunny day, it plays a big part in the Canadian heritage. The overall beer consumption over the years has been steady, however with increased competition, it is becoming harder for Canadian breweries to keep up with market trends. Hence, all the major Canadian breweries have been merged with or acquired by the international giants. The competition is rising not only between beer brands, but also within beverage types. Wine consumption in Canada has been increasing substantially. Consumers are always looking for something new and exciting, but at the same time, something they can relate to. â€Å"A key point for success is to bring differentiation while still retaining a recognizable and familiar aspect†(t). Another obstacle the brewing industry is facing is the wrong perception consumers have about beer and its effect on weight and overall health. â€Å"Beer belly†, for example is just a myth. It is vital for companies to educate consumers about the true nutritional value of beer to avoid wrong perceptions and lose consumers to other beverages that seem more calories cautious. Research Objective This report outlines current trends as well as opportunities and threats to the Canadian Brewing Industry. The results were interpreted based on the research conducted on the three major brewing companies: Heineken N. V. , Sleeman Brewery Ltd. , and Molson Coors Brewing Co. We identified and compared these breweries in terms of the background, consumer’s opinions and strategic issues the companies are currently facing. Finally, the recommendations provided outline the possibilities for improvement and growth of the industry if the appropriate changes are undertaken. Research Method This research was conducted based on North American population through trend analysis. The articles were chosen based on relevancy and the date of publication, 2008 and above. The main areas of research were: history of the company, social media impact, strategic issues and opportunities. The focus was on the most recent news and events that affected the company as well as the entire industry. Company Information Heineken N. V. was founded in 1873 in Netherlands and has become the world’s most international brewer (Heineken, 2013). It operates in Western Europe, Central and Eastern Europe, Africa and the Middle East, The Americas, and Asia Pacific. The company is keen on contributing to a sustainable future. Their strategy is based on the four focus areas: conserving water, decreasing CO2 emissions, responsible agriculture, and responsible consumption. Heineken also believes that innovation is key to future success. The Heineken Ignite beer bottle is their new invention. It is replete with LEDs and motion sensors, â€Å"which let it light up with various effects when drinkers knock bottles to say cheers with someone or take a sip†. The LEDs could also be synchronized with music and activated by light sources. (d) Founded in Guelph, Ontario in 1834, Sleeman Breweries Ltd. became a leading brewer and distributor of premium beer in Canada. (b) Their success came from â€Å"turn-of-the-century† beer recipes and the passion that continues to drive the company to this day. Sleeman’s trademark is their unique clear bottle. In the recent lawsuit against Dead Frog Brewery that uses a similar clear bottle design, John Sleeman, CEO, said: â€Å"Sleeman will always vigorously defend its trademarks, especially where my family’s heritage is concerned. (c) Sleeman Breweries Ltd. was bought out by Sapporo in 2006, however the Japanese firm kept the Sleeman name and business intact because of the intrinsic value that it holds. (e) Molson Inc. is the oldest brewery in North America, established in 1786(a). In 1978, the company bought into sports and entertainment industry, purchasing â€Å"a share in the M ontreal Canadiens and the Montreal Forum, as well as hosting Molson Hockey Night in Canada†(a). Their advertising campaign has always been based on the â€Å"beer-sports† connection, trying to establish that beer and hockey are two defining elements of the Canadian identity. (f) After merging with Coors, Molson Coors Brewing Co. became 5th largest brewer in the world. Below is a comparison table of the three above-mentioned companies, in terms of 2012 sales, place of origin, current position in the market, types of beer offered in Canada, sports associations, and company slogans. Heineken is the most known international beer brand, â€Å"when in doubt, order a Heineken†. But the recent feedback from the consumers shows that Heineken is over-rated. It’s characteristic skunky taste is the result of the green bottles it’s served in. The UV rays break down the hop compounds, which is why the beer tastes different when served from the bottle compared to tap. Heineken however is not ready to let go of their notorious green bottles since that would make it harder to identify the beer, which in turn will hurt the company’s bottom line. Sleeman is known for its flavorful body and clean taste (no skunkiness). Some find it too sweet, others enjoy it. The benefit that Sleeman has over its competitors is that is offers different types of craft beer that other breweries don’t. From fruity India Pale Ale to chocolaty Fine Porter, Sleeman wants to create a long lasting relationship with those, who have an appreciation for beer. However, Sleeman is not as active in the Social Media world as Heineken and Molson are with their catchy commercials and Facebook pages. Molson Canadian was voted #2 in AskMen, men’s online magazine. Be it a hockey game, a backyard bbq or a camping trip, Molson Canadian is what the young generation automatically reaches for, due to Molson’s heavy advertising that incorporates those themes. â€Å"Camping essentials. Lots of firewood and Molson Canadian†- was posted on Twitter along with a picture of a truck loaded with firewood and cases of Molson Canadian. Key trends, opportunities and threats Although beer continues to dominate the market of alcoholic beverages, (c)†beer consumption is declining in the U. S. and Europe, the source of two-thirds of Heineken’s profits, because of tougher drunk-driving laws and a growing appreciation for wine†. The fact is that beer is not seen as a â€Å"fancy drink† that you indulge in, it is time to change that. Companies must start educating consumers about the differences between various types of beer, beer and food pairings, in order to create a better appreciation for the beverage. Another obstacle the brewing industry has to overcome is the â€Å"beer belly† myth. Consumers are becoming more health cautious and many believe that beer is detrimental to weight loss and health in general. The fact is, beer is fat-free, cholesterol-free and low in carbohydrates. Beer is made from hops, barley and wheat, so the beverage contains many nutrients such are: vitamins A, C B6, folate, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, zinc, iron, and calcium. Beer also contains antioxidants and is high in fiber. Those who choose lighter beers in hopes of reducing their caloric intake, are also missing out on all the nutrients the beer holds. Drinking beer in moderation also reduces the risk of heart disease and stroke, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, bone fractures and osteoporosis, kidney stones, digestive ailments, gallstones, and physical ailments affecting the elderly. Beer can be part of a balanced diet and a healthy, active lifestyle. The key is moderation. (brewers association One of the big trends for summer 2013 is light and flavored beer with the hope to appeal more to women, and Molson Canadian is on top of it. Their new line of beer, Molson Wheat, is made with all-natural ingredients; â€Å"the unfiltered wheat lager delivers a hint of malt, balanced by the fruity character of just-ripened bananas†. Molson is also going to introduce Molson Canadian Cider made from 100% Canadian apples and champagne yeast. On the other spectrum, craft beer is also the category that will experience growth, thus Sleeman should undergo a positive turnaround in the near future. The current debate over wider retail distribution of alcoholic beverages is becoming more evident, and more changes and pilot programs are being tested to potentially expand product availability beyond liquor stores. â€Å"In 2013, the province of Ontario – the largest alcoholic drinks market in Canada will become LCBO or Liquor Control Board of Ontario Express stores-within-stores at 10 grocery supermarkets. The Manitoba Liquor Control Commission has also been testing the Liquor Mart Express store within a Canada Safeway supermarket in Winnipeg as of 2012† (Euromonitor International, 2013). Wider retail distribution will definitely create more opportunities for product marketing and retailer distribution, potentially giving more opportunities for smaller local wineries, breweries and distilleries to bring their products to the market (Euromonitor International, 2013) Study Implications and Recommendations There are four main concepts derived from this research: * Perception of beer * Health implications * Competition * Innovation In order to stay competitive, the above 4 concepts must be exercised interchangeably. The brewing industry has a lot of room for improvement and growth. The improvement must begin from changing the consumers’ perspective about beer in order to create a lasting relationship. An ongoing education about beer and beer consumption is also something that can change consumers’ perceptions and preferences. In order to stay competitive, one must â€Å"bring differentiation while still retaining a recognizable and familiar aspect†(t). Social Media is a powerful tool that must be utilized in order to reach consumers as well as to learn about consumer behavior and generate feedback. Study Limitations and Directions for Future Research I found the most credible sources were the company’s websites, Business and Company Resoucre Centre and Global Market Information Database (GMID). The least credible was Wikipedia (was not included in this research paper) since some of the information was not accurate and up do date. Canadian Business and Current Affairs, I found to be the least up to date and least helpful. There is much more research that could be conducted in regards to this topic- alcohol regulation, exporting tariffs, cross marketing strategies, etc. The above research should be used as a foundation for the in depth analysis of the brewing industry of Canada.

Possible Violation of the Eighth Amendment Essay

The article I found was written on March 14, 2011 about the controversy of the constitutionality of the treatment of Private Manning. There have been many articles about this topic, but the one I looked at was an editorial in the pages of the New York Times. Private Manning was convicted of leaking restricted military files to WikiLeaks and was arrested on the twenty sixth of May in Iraq. Since then he has been imprisoned at Quantico in Virginia and has been treated as the some of the prisoners at Abu Ghraib have. For example, he is in solitary confinement twenty three out of twenty four hours, on the twenty four hours his ankles must be shackled on the way to and on the way back from the exercise room. Finally, he is forced to sleep naked and when inspection comes in the morning, he is naked throughout that too; only when it is over is he permitted to have his clothes back. The controversy is whether this is treatment for cruel and unusual punishment; also known as the eighth amendment. I think this treatment of Private Manny may very well lead to a court case over the eighth amendment. In my opinion, there was most definitely a violation of the eighth amendment, I do not condone torture in any sense and consider not only despicable and disgraceful on American soil, but unconstitutional, and the treatment of Private Manning falls under this position. Being forced naked and in isolation for such extended periods of time is torture. Torture is cruel and, most definitely, unusual punishment especially considering the non-severity of Private Manning’s actions.

Childhood obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Childhood obesity - Essay Example Obesity as a consequence of reduced physical activities is becoming more and more frequent in the modern world and is increasing at an especially alarming rate in children. Globally 155 million children with ages ranging from 5-17 years are overweight. Lobstein et al. (2004) claimed that of these 155 million children approximately 30-45 million are obese (cited in World Heart Federation 2007). According to our own National Health Service (NHS, England , January 2008) statistics on obesity, physical activity and diet, 16% of children aged from 2-15 are classified as obese. In the under five year old group the figures for 2007 show that there were approximately 22 million overweight children and that roughly 75% of those live in the low-middle income bracket (WHO, 2008). We are creating an increasingly obesogenic environment where this rising trend in obesity may be associated with the increase in: Technologies and affordability of televisions, computers, etc. Fox (2004) suggested that the time spent being physically inactive by playing video-games, watching television and using computers has increased. Transportation has increased allowing little expenditure of calorie intake due to fewer or reduced physical activities (St-Onge et al., 2003). Children are driven to school or use public transport rather than walk as parents are worried by the apparent lack of safety in the communities in which they live (Fox, 2004). In a cross sectional study by Voss et al. (2005), within a cohort of 277 families in Britain 75% of parents with overweight children did not realise that their children were overweight; 33% of mothers and 57% of fathers thought that their children were at the correct weight when they were, in fact, obese. The current school curriculum allows for a minimum of two hours of physical activity per week. 86% of schools in Britain

Capital asset pricing model Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Capital asset pricing model - Essay Example The market indices of the securities market may not always diversify well. The capital-pricing model will not explain investors’ behavior and the beta might fail in capturing the risk of investment in real life practice due to these factors. Therefore, the model fails to act as a uniform and efficient valuation model in a real practical situation. The model only works in a generalized situation that is when dealing with a portfolio but fail if the investment is broken down into single forms of securities. The capital asset pricing model assumes that the higher the risks the higher the return and that all the investors are risk averse. The model assumes that securities are highly divisible into small parts. The model further, assumes that all investors access information at the same time and that investors make decisions based on a single period horizon. The capital asset pricing model is practically difficult to validate. Empirical validation of the capital asset pricing model has to establish that beta has ability to measure the risk of a security (Szyszka, 2009). It also has to show that there is a significant correlation between beta and the expected rate of return. The empirical results have however, being of mixed outcomes. The results have shown that the relationship is not as strong as the capital asset pricing model indicates. The results also have also shown that the expected returns are also related to other measures of risk, which includes firm’s specific risk. Other factors such as market value and book value ratios relationship with returns were found to be significant. In order to test capital asset pricing model empirically researchers need to use data on expected prices. However, the data available is historical information only. This therefore, will result to biased empirical results. The capital asset pricing model assumes that the market portfolio consists of all the assets in all the markets. The market portfolio according to t he capital asset pricing theory must include every marketable asset (Khalaf, 2010). The assumption behind the market portfolio is that market index performance is impacted by every factor in the economy. The use of proxy portfolio is very controversial and this leads to the questioning of the validity of the Capital asset pricing model. Capital asset pricing model measure of a security future risk (Beta) is constant. In a real security market, investors do not have future information about the market to estimate beta. Investors only have past information about the market portfolio, performance of different organizations and prices of shares. Therefore, investors can only estimate the measure of a security future risk using historical data. The use of a historical beta is only applicable in case the beta is stable over time. Research has shown that betas for different securities are not constant over time. Therefore, historical betas are poor indicators to determine future risk of se curities. B) Describe Roll’s critique of the early empirical tests of the Capital as

Fourth Latern Council of 1215 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Fourth Latern Council of 1215 - Essay Example The first Lateran Council was convened during 1123 BC that confirmed the Concordat of Worms. The second Lateran Council was convened during 1139 and formulated several tenets such as invalidation of the clerical marriage, regulation of clerical dress and excommunication of the people who attacked clerics2. The third Lateran Council was convened during 1179 and continued reforms in church with condemnation of simony, limitation of papal  electees  to the  Cardinals  and forbiddance of promotion to  the episcopate  before thirtieth year of the age. The fourth Lateran Council was convened during 1215 and continued with reform measures such as papal primacy, transubstantiation and conduct of clergy.3 The council was also concerned about distinguishing people of other religions such as Muslims and Jews from the Christians in  public area,  and they suggested the differentiation of the dress as a resolution of the issue.   The fifth Lateran Council that was convened during 1512 to 1517 continued with further reform of the Church. The fourth Lateran Council was summoned by Pope Innocent III during 1215 to resolve many issues that concerned Roman Catholic Church. These issues included the disaster at the Crusade wars, to strengthen the faith and continue reforms in the church. 4 Pope Innocent III himself worded the goals of the fourth Lateran Council as the plantation of the virtues, eradication of the vices, reformation of the morals, correction of the faults and removal of heresies. The other goals included the establishment of the peace, settlement of the discord and getting rid of the oppression. He also wanted to persuade Christian people and princes to aid the cause of Crusades. 5 There were many reasons why Pope Innocent III summoned the Fourth Lateran Council. The Christian society and Roman Catholic Church were in considerable turmoil due to moral issues. In addition to

Cost advantage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cost advantage - Essay Example Learning: Productivity improves as the process of learning to do a task attains peak level. It provides opportunities - from a complex machine center operation to even routine tasks like collecting stores or selecting a channel for distribution. It is one of the drivers behind the success of suggestion-box schemes, where employees with hands-on experience are rewarded for suggestions for improving efficiency. (your last name) 2 Capacity utilization: Resources of a firm in the form of different assets like men, machinery, money etc. are put to different levels of utilization. It is possible to improve the levels and achieve better balance in order to reduce fixed/variable costs per unit, with better volumes. Linkages: This explains the interrelationship between activities both within and without a firm. At the broadest level, the critical path method (CPM) or project evaluation and review techniques (PERT) can be seen as typical study of linkages in project planning operations. The id ea is to see that wastage and inefficiency is eliminated in completing different tasks that have dependencies. The Japanese inventory control system, just-in-time (JIT), is typical of the examples of deriving cost efficiencies of input supplies, a process in which even suppliers’ value activities are studied and improved upon to create win-win situation for both. Interrelationships: This is the process of identifying interrelationship of activities of the different units of a firm, which are amenable to improved efficiencies e.g., administration, recruitment/training or purchases. Integration: Popularly called backward and forward integration processes, this identifies activities upstream or downstream of the current operations with a view to locate opportunities for (your last name) 3 integration which would result in cost efficiencies/value addition or both. For example, a steel rerolling unit may examine setting up facilities for steel melting (backward) or end-product fab rication (forward). Timing: First-mover or late-mover advantages/disadvantages play a role in operational costs. First-movers gain brand advantage and enjoy premium prices but may be tied up with expensive/obsolete machinery or methods over a time; Late-movers learn from the mistakes of early-movers, employ more modern and efficient machines but have to fight entrenched players to gain market share. Also, market conditions and seasonal factors influence operations and underscore the importance of timing. Finally, a firm’s discretionary policies as per its objectives and goals, and institutional factors of agencies like the local/state/national governments and creditors, drive the cost advantage of a firm. Porter’s analysis also emphasizes the interplay of the different cost drivers and searches for scope for improved efficiencies, going beyond conventional cost accounting method. In other words, for gaining cost advantage, it is less important to know ‘how muchâ €™ an activity costs than ‘why so much’. 2. Analyzing and deciding steps The competitor enjoys an average price premium of 0.6% and lower costs of 0.5% on account of maintenance and scrap, resulting in net higher pre-tax margin of 5.1%, compared to my 4%. These cost benefits accrue to him due to the modern machinery employed by him. Since (your last name) 4 replacing my 30-year old machinery or charging higher prices is ruled out, I have to look for alternative ways to generate

Comprehensive health history and Physical Essay

Comprehensive health history and Physical - Essay Example It was around six in the evening while he was driving from work when he noticed a change in his body. There was an abrupt pain onset of the pain to his right side which occurred for a small period of time about one to two minutes. He thought that he might have strained while driving and this might have resulted in the pain. The pain slowly moved from the parasternal area towards his neck. This was the first time he experienced such pain and describes his day as a normal day at the office with no strains. He felt tired at this time as the pain continued to radiate upwards. The pain subsided a little when he got home but he felt a discomfort that was accompanied by a shortness of breath. At this time, he was not nauseated or sweating. The pain seemed to disappear immediately he arrived home and rested. Two days ago the pain returned again and this time a little severe than the first episode and lasted close to five minutes. The pain seemed to emanate from the same place as the previous episode. He experienced this twice during the day in the morning and in the evening. In both instances he was not strained but simply walking around in the office. He went home and took a rest again and the pain seemed to disappear completely until today when the pain episode manifested. All this time he was contemplating of seeking medical attention but did not. He never used any pain relievers or any other drug that could ease the pain. The reason for this he says is that the pain seemed to last for a short period of time and would disappear itself or would end immediately he went to rest. This made him think that the pain was as a result of work. The patient says that he did not experience any other symptom apart from the shortness of breath during the pain episodes. There was no dizziness or palpitations. He also says that there was no other exertional dyspnea, orthopnea or paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea. Interestingly the pain did not alter during movements or during food intake . There was also no palpable pain. He has never been informed of having heart problems. He has never had a problem with his chest before and neither has he ever experienced chest pains in his life. He does not have claudication. However, Andrew was diagnosed with hypertension about 2 years ago. Andrew is not a smoker and has no symptoms of diabetes. He was only diagnosed with the hypertension 2 years ago which he is fully aware of and had a total abdominal hysterectomy and a BSO about a year ago. Andrew has not been on any hormone replacement therapy of late. He also says that their family has a history of premature CAD. He has been monitoring his cholesterol level for quite some time but at present he does not know. Past Medical, Surgical, and Social History Surgical- has no history of surgical operations Medical history Childhood: diagnosed with mumps at the age of 7. No measles, croup, pertussis, rheumatic fever, scarlet or polio. Accidents: Andrew had an accident while at the ag e of 12 while riding his bicycle. He developed a fracture. At the age of 25 he was involved in a car accident although he survived with bruises. Chronic illnesses: In 2010 he was diagnosed with hypertension and was on medication until last year when he stopped taking the medication due to the drowsy effect they were having on him. In 2008 he was diagnosed with peptic ulcer disease which was successfully treated after three months using cimetidine. Hospitalizations: He was hospitalized at the age of 12 after the accident where he

Strategic management in an international context Q3 and 4 Case Study

Strategic management in an international context Q3 and 4 - Case Study Example The management strategized the Cooperation’s plans to fit the internal and external business environment, and its internal coherence without facing any challenge or influencing its operation negatively (Schultz & Gordon 2011, p27). Some of the issues surrounding Starbucks Corporation business environment includes competition, clients and suppliers, improvements in technology, market, laws and government, social and economic trends. Starbucks first strategy majored in competition. Outside the American boundary, Starbucks faced various competitive situations in every country it carried operations. On many occasions, competition was even more intense than in America. The withdrawal of Starbucks from Australia was an effect of a highly sophisticated coffee market developed and dominated by the Middle Eastern immigrants, Italians, and South Europeans. Throughout continental Europe, Starbucks had to face well-developed markets with excellent standards of coffee preparations and strong preferences. In addition to competition from the bottom, Starbuck faced competition from the top. For instance, the up market Italian coffee roaster illycafe was growing and expanding in America through Franchise arrangement with independent coffee houses. A good justification for the American gourmet coffee market was that immediately Starbucks had educated North America about happiness of good coffee, the new coffee connoisseurs move d on to seek superior alternatives to Starbucks. Therefore, Starbucks initiated various strategies to fit or overcome the competition. Starbuck joined single-served coffee pod systems pioneered by Nespresso subsidiary by launching its single serve, home coffee makers under its Verismo brand (Schultz & Gordon 2011, p. 221). Starbuck also reduced the prices of coffee, which increased sales. Therefore, they gained several customers; hence, more retained earnings and benefits. The next strategy of Starbucks is to fit in the social and economic trend.

Gender,Sexuality and Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Gender,Sexuality and Diversity - Essay Example This paper shall critically discuss the post-feminist argument that in Western societies, women are empowered to choose whether or not to engage in beauty practices. A discussion on the various manifestations of women empowerment will be included in this paper. Body Western societies are now seemingly perceived to be post-feminist, which may mean that structural elements negatively affecting women have already been managed and that any lingering differences between men and women are being attributed to the manifestations of individual choices (Jeffreys, 2005). Writers acknowledge that choice has become the battle cry of the post-feminist era; under these conditions, as long as the actions of women are based on their own choices, there is no need for further assessment of their actions and choices (Braun, 2009). Beauty practices are very much related to such post-feminist ideas and arguments. Even if the use of beauty products have been subjected to feminist critique, practices like p utting on lipstick or shaving one’s legs do not any more represent issues for feminists (Stuart and Donahue, 2012). Third-wave feminists express that women’s power to choose the engagement in these beauty practices is a welcome element of feminism (Baumgardner and Richards, 2000). However, even with much support attributed to various choices, and even with the entry of women into areas in society where they were not previously included, women’s bodies are still made part of high surveillance and discipline (Jeffreys, 2005). The chances given to women to increase their achievements which were not available to them before has not been coordinated with the power to do away with the oppressive elements and practices of femininity. Scholars argue that the discarding of traditional female roles in the workplace has been matched with a greater focus on feminine bodies (Gill, 2007). Gill (2007) points out that femininity for the current western culture has followed the suggested trajectory laid out by Bartky (1990), Bordo (1993), and Wolf (1990) where social applications relating to femininity are not anymore directed towards the manifestation of traditional gender roles, but are leaning more towards practices which strongly highlight the management and beautification of women’s bodies. Postfeminist marks of liberation via empowerment and choices are placed within the context of harsh beauty requirements and images which Western women are compared to and judged against (Gill, 2006). In effect, with all the apparent choices, the contemporary western culture puts a very harsh and intense evaluation of women’s bodies. Contextualizing femininity within the post-feminist conditions is a major focus of contemporary feminist work (Evans, et.al., 2010). Feminine beauty practices were a clear focus for the second-wave feminism with a more critical assessment made on the means by which such practices have impacted on the reification of the dis parities between men and women, as well as the objectification of women (Bartky, 1990). By the end of the 1980s, as feminism secured more success in the liberation of women, the negative reaction against the second wave feminism caused new restrictions on women’s liberties (Jeffreys, 2005). The conditional message has been suggested relating to women gaining a more liberated status, for as long as such status is not made at the cost of their femininity. Such message is seen in

The Importance of Maintaining a Valid Physical Therapy License Essay

The Importance of Maintaining a Valid Physical Therapy License - Essay Example The license renewal process thus ensures that the physical therapist has completed the required continuing education and, as a result, has access to the most current information and techniques available. Moreover, it is crucial that physical therapists maintain valid licenses so that the state can ensure that its physical therapy professionals are obliged to adhere to the ethical standards of the industry. Additionally, it is essential that physical therapists maintain their licenses for a variety of legal reasons. Physical therapy patients rely on their physical therapist to provide them with a certain standard of care. Often, physical therapy can provide a patient with the means to achieve a better quality of life. A patient needs to be able to trust in the qualifications of their physical therapist not only to help them reach the goals but also to make sure he does not further damage himself in the process. The physical therapy license provides this security for the patient, giving him the knowledge that this physical therapist is qualified to advise him. If a physical therapist allows his license to lapse, he is no longer certified to provide physical therapy services to patients and is accordingly not deserving of the patient's trust.

The differences in ethical and Christian views concerning homosexuality Essay Example for Free

The differences in ethical and Christian views concerning homosexuality Essay Homosexuality is a subject, which is forever being raised in todays media and society. It is constantly brought to the attention of many to be somewhat reassessed in terms of ethical and religious view points, whether through the newspapers or the television. While religious view points used to manipulate society in all matters, it now seems to be the media which influences and guides social attitudes towards homosexuality. For many years, it has been seen as intrinsically wrong to everybody, religious and secular. However, it is fast becoming more and more accepted by a larger number of people. Just the mention of homosexuality in a Roman Catholic Church is bound to be frowned upon or combated with a quick fire of biblical references to show you that homosexuality is wrong in the eyes of God. Catholicism has often been blamed for the development of homophobia, particularly in the West. While this may seem a little unfair, it is most certainly true that homophobia is ubiquitous within this Christian denomination. Many Catholics often refer to what few references there are in the Bible to the subject of homosexuality. For example, the story of the town called Sodom (Gen. 19-21) is one of the most famous indications that people often refer to. Here, a man named Lot is greeted by two of Gods divine messengers, who wish to warn Lot that God is displeased with the terrible behavior. He then receives men at his door saying that they wish to commit sexual acts with these divine messengers and in response to this, God burns the town to the ground. Christians believe that this was because of the men wishing to commit homosexual acts. They feel that there is no necessary analysis of this story as the message is quite clear. Jack T. Chick is a publisher of fundamentalist Christian leaflets and comic books. In one of his childrens comic books, entitled Birds and Bees, he wrote, The worst city was Sodom. These Sodomites worshipped Satan, were possessed with devils and they hated God. Their stink reached heaven and God was fed up with them. He planned to destroy them to keep their filthy lifestyle from spreading. As soon as they got Lot and his family out of Sodom, God firebombed the cities and turned them into ashes. Today, those same kinds of people are back, but now theyre called Gays! This opinion is shared by many Christians today and is often the message, which is portrayed through Christian propaganda such as this. From looking at this sort of publication, it is easy to see why Catholics are so frequently blamed for the development of homophobia. However, many Catholics today argue that this was simply a misinterpretation of the biblical reference itself. John Macquarrie and James Childress wrote in the New Dictionary of Christian Ethics To the extent that the Sodom story focuses on homosexual acts, the judgment is on the homosexual rape of divine messengers, and its larger judgment appears to be against social injustice and inhospitality to strangers (see Ezek. 16:49-50). They clearly state that the passage in the bible is not about the homosexual acts themselves, but the wish to do it without consent, implying that homosexual acts are perfectly okay as long as they are with two compliant adults. Not only this, but God was displeased with how the men acted towards guests when they should have been hospitable in a more Christian and loving way. There are many other examples of homosexual references in the bible, such as the Levitical Holiness Code (Lev. 18:22; 20:13), which prescribes the death penalty for homosexual acts. The NT (New Testament) calls homosexual acts idolatry (Rom. 1:26-27) and suggests that certain homosexual activity will deny you entry into Gods Kingdom (1 Cor. 6:9-10, 1 Tim. 1:9-10) But yet again, Macquarrie and Childress argue the same thing. They wrote, The references in 1 Corinthians and 1 Timothy quite clearly take the sordid and dehumanizing dimensions of Greco-Roman pederasty as their image of homosexual relations. Macquarrie and Childress argue that the reference in 1 Corinthians and 1 Timothy are in reference to relations between men and boys and not in fact between two grown men. This changes the meaning entirely of the supposed reference to homosexuality, as we know very well that relations between men and boys is still found highly unacceptable and illegal even in todays society, not just in the religious circles. This is a highly different interpretation to what most Catholics would agree with, however, as times change many Catholics are actually considering these alternative interpretations to meet with the ever changing ethical views of society. There were many others to follow Macquarrie and Childress in re-interpreting the Bible and its rules on homosexuality. Many criticized Catholics for ignoring other rules that suited them but sticking to the rules about homosexuality because they didnt like the idea. In his book, Ethical Studies, David Bowie wrote The bible condemns hypocrisy and greed, but no one died at the stake in medieval times for these offences, while homosexuals perished. This view was shared by the likes of John Boswell (1982) and Gareth Moore (1992). Moore wrote, in his book The Body in Context: Sex and Catholicism (1992), that Christians dont follow the rule in Leviticus 19:19 that states that wearing garments that are made of two types of material is forbidden. He goes further to say that we ignore the laws, which are convenient to us while pursuing those that attack minorities that we dont like (pp. 184-186). He too agrees with the interpretation of the Sodom story, which states that God was troubled by the failure to meet the responsibility of hospitality, as oppose to disapproving homosexuality (p. 191). St. Paul wrote that homosexuality often comes from godless people who lead a precarious lifestyle. In 1 Corinthians he lists all kinds of unrighteous people including male prostitutes and sodomites. He says that people engaging in same sex actions are dishonoring their bodies. He also writes about men committing shameless acts with men. Moore also criticizes this idea from St. Paul. Moore argues that, whilst this may have been true in St. Pauls lifetime, it certainly isnt true now; with the fact there are many holy, Christian homosexuals around today who just want to be accepted. This doesnt fit into St. Pauls argument of godless homosexuals. While biblical references are very powerful to Catholics as Gods spoken word, there are also many modern day references that are used by Catholics such as the Declaration on Sexual Ethics (1975) which states In Sacred Scripture homosexual acts are condemned as a serious depravity and even presented as a sad consequence of rejecting God. This judgment of scripture does not, of course, permit us to conclude that all those who suffer from this anomaly are personally responsible for it, but it does attest to the fact that homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered and cannot be approved of. This seems to express the general view of conservative Catholics and provides another reason for practicing Catholics to be against homosexuality even if it is not entirely what they think. If it is written in something as serious as the Declaration on Sexual Ethics, people feel that they must follow it no matter what simply because they dont want to go against their religion. Disagreeing with this documentation would be opposing what the modern day Catholicism is requiring them to do and therefore many Catholics see it as intrinsically wrong to be homosexual, no matter what the reasons or circumstances. As well as actual textual references that say homosexuality is wrong, there are many other arguments that are always put forward by Catholics. Perhaps the most famous was that developed by Thomas Aquinas, called The Natural Law. This is the idea that sex is only for pro-creation, that is having children. He argues that this is why God gave us the sexual organs and using them for anything other than reproduction would be to misuse our bodies. Of course, this includes any form of homosexual activity and many Christians stick to this rule explicitly. This means, however, that some Christians find it perfectly acceptable to be homosexual but remain celibate throughout their entire lifetime. There are several Christian denominations that do find forms of homosexuality acceptable. Quakers say that homosexuality is no more deplorable than left-handedness and that it is the nature and quality of the relationship that matters. This means that as long as the relationship is a loving and caring relationship then it is perfectly acceptable no matter who is involved. This view is shared by the Methodist denomination of Christianity, which states that For homosexual men and women, permanent relationships characterized by love can be an appropriate and Christian way of expressing their sexuality. Many Christians believe that the most important teaching of Jesus was that you must love each other and treat each other how you would like to be treated. In this case, we must treat homosexuals with respect and not judge them for their way of living. We must show compassion for every human being, no matter what his or her race, creed or sexuality. While these religious views are still seen as highly acceptable, it is fast becoming the ethical views that are dominating the societys opinion of homosexuality. Due to the investigation into the cause of homosexuality, many people now believe that being a homosexual is something that you do not choose to be, something that you cannot change about yourself. The causes of homosexuality can often be split up into different categories; biological, psychoanalytical and social learning theories. And of course many doctors and psychologists seem to go for a combination of all three. However, despite the general consensus that we do not know the cause of homosexuality, there have been certain aspects of it that people agree on. For example, we know that it seems to become fixed in early childhood, usually by the age of seven. This is said to be not of the individuals own choice. Another agreement is that while efforts to change ones sexual practices may be successful, it will not change the sexual orientation of the individual and things such as feelings and desires. And finally, people agree upon the fact that most people are neither exclusively heterosexual nor homosexual but that they have leading predispositions towards either orientation. With these ethical considerations in mind, many people take these into deliberation when making judgments or decisions about homosexuality. People often question whether homosexuality actually is a moral issue. Not all Christians would find these biblical references useful or even relevant to the modern day debate as to whether homosexuality is right or wrong. We also have to consider the views of those who dont follow the Christian tradition at all. At which point does homosexuality become a moral problem for people in society? Surely sexual acts that occur between two consenting adults, homosexual or heterosexual, are perfectly okay in the privacy of their own homes. True, people shouldnt be exposed to things that they may find offensive in their opinion but it doesnt mean that they can stop other people from doing so. Of course there has been the issue of homosexuality in the law. What is legal is not necessarily the same as what is moral. Up until 1967, it was illegal to perform sexual acts at any time in any place. However, the 1967 Sexual Offences Act legalized homosexuality but many people still think it should be against the law. J.S. Mill claimed The only purpose for which power can be rightfully be exercised over any member of a civilized community against his will is to prevent harm to others. This opinion was shared by John Rawls who stated every person has a right to the maximum amount of liberty compatible with allowing liberty for all.(Ethics: Homosexuality by Reg Luhman p.20) This means that every individual, homosexual or heterosexual has the right to do whatever he or she want as long as it doesnt harm other people. He questions why people think they have the right to deny some human beings of their right to be homosexual and happy at the same time. However, Lord Devlin challenged this. He stated in his lecture on the reinforcement of morals, that homosexuality could damage our societys status and that allowing homosexuality to exist legally could jeopardize this. He believes that a society must do what it takes to preserve its own existence even if this means illegalizing homosexual acts in private between consenting adults. H.L.A. Hart criticized Devlin for this, drawing divisions between what is immoral and what is an upset to public civility. It brings attention to the fact that sexual acts between husband and wife would be seen as perfectly okay as long as it was in private but if it public then it would be considered immoral. However, sexual acts between two homosexuals would be considered immoral whether it was private or in public. He says The idea that we may punish offenders against a moral code, not to prevent harm or suffering or even repetition of the offence but simply as a means of venting or emphatically expressing moral condemnation, is uncomfortably close to human sacrifice as an expression of religious worship. The fact that humans can punish other humans for doing nothing but expressing their sexuality seems morally wrong in itself. To punish someone for something which they cannot help and did not choose is a far greater and unchristian way of dealing with the issue than allowing them to be homosexual in the privacy of their own homes etc. Joseph Fletcher argued that any of the 10 commandments or moral values could be broken if the circumstances required people to do so. He proposed the idea of situation ethics, which suggested that acts should be committed depending on what would be the most loving thing to do. The obvious problem with this is that we cannot know the outcome of any action and so we cannot determine what the most loving thing to do would be. But in the situation where two people love each other very much and feel that they must find a way to express their love, Fletcher would argue that they should be allowed to express it simply because they are acting out of love for each other and not causing any harm to anybody. With these considerations in mind, people still find homosexuality immorally wrong, whether theyre religious or not. Many people call it unnatural and against what man was made to do, so to speak. Natural would be to preserve the human race and of course, homosexual relationship do not do this. Charles Darwin proposed the idea of Naturalistic Humes Law which said that just because things are natural does not mean they are good and just because things are artificial or unnatural does not mean they are evil or bad. If we put this into modern day perspective we can see that, while homosexuality may be considered unnatural (which it may or may not be depending on ones opinion), it does not mean it is necessarily wrong. This seems to suggest that the question of whether homosexuality is natural or unnatural is irrelevant because that factor doesnt contribute to whether it is right or wrong, moral or immoral. In conclusion, it seems that there will probably always be an issue with homosexuality and religious groups until religious leaders are willing to see alternative interpretations of their sacred texts. However, it does seem that many people are beginning to accept homosexuality into society without the consideration of religion. The media has heavily influenced the acceptance of homosexuality as well as the legalizing of it in 1967. In a few years times, homophobia should be almost non-existent, excluding the religious groups who arent willing to change their views with the modern day times. We could argue forever which view is more right in terms or morals and religious aspects but in the end it depends entirely upon personal opinion and we cannot force people to be okay with something as controversial as this. Homophobia should be something, which will diminish given time. Bibliography Ethical Studies David Bowie (2001) Groundwork of Christian Ethics Richard G. Jones (1984) A New Dictionary of Christian Ethics Edited by John Macquarrie and James Childress (1986) Religious Studies Sarah K. Tyler and Gordon Reid (2002) On Liberty J.S. Mill (1859) The Body In Context: Sex and Catholicism- Gareth Moore (1992) Rediscovering Gay History: Archetypes of Gay Love in Christian History John Boswell (1982) Ethics: Homosexuality Reg Luhman (1999)

Issues of the Development of Brownfield Sites

Issues of the Development of Brownfield Sites Introduction: Brownfield land, or previously developed land (PDL), â€Å" is that which is or was occupied by a permanent structure, including the curtilage of the developed land and any associated fixed surface infrastructure.† This is the definition given in Planning Policy Statement 3 (PPS3) Housing, by the British Government, however in the United States the definition has been notably tweaked over time. The US Environment Protection Agency in 1997 quoted brownfields as being â€Å" abandoned, idled or under-used industrial and commercial facilities where expansion or redevelopment is complicated by real or perceived contamination.† This description was however updated in 2002 to become â€Å" real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or re-use of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant or contaminant.† The development of brownfield sites has been an area of great debate and discussion for many years. There are numerous issues surrounding their re-use from almost every viewpoint. Developers have historically been reluctant and unenthusiastic to make use of them for any new planned schemes for a variety of reasons. There can be great costs associated with the cleanup of a brownfield site depending on its previous employment. Further to this, legislation held every past and present owner of brownfield property completely responsible for any pollution or contamination to nearby people or property thereby presenting a large risk for potential developers. As time has passed by, non-built-up space available for construction of any type of buildings has diminished and therefore the Governments of most countries have made policies in a bid to control over-expansion and prevent urban sprawl. Clearly this has an impact on brownfield sites and their usage or potential regeneration. Another important area that warrants discussion is what has been termed as ‘sustainable development defined as, â€Å"development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.† (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987) Sustainable development has become an objective which Governments throughout the world strive for. It is the core principal underpinning planning and aims to ensure a better quality of life for everyone, now and in the future. Poor planning can lead to run-down town centres, unsafe and dilapidated housing, and the loss of countryside. (HMG, PPS 1 Delivering Sustainable Development, 2005) Governmental policies are often introduced, altered or even eradicated depending on the state of the economy. A recent example is the reduction of Value Added Tax (VAT) carried out by the Government in the United Kingdom (UK) which was an attempt to try to limit the effects of recession by putting extra money in the pockets of consumers. Brownfield land can be affected in many ways by changes to existing economic policies and particularly planning legislation and guidelines, for example, they were brought very much more in to the spotlight with the establishment and enforcement of greenbelt land. This said, it is not just directly linked policies that can influence brownfields. The Government has five main economic goals and land use impacts on a number of these main goal areas particularly the protection of the environment, economic growth and unemployment. Research Question: The purpose of the project is to explore the issues surrounding brownfield sites for developers and the Government alike; including the incentives and support they offer, as well as restrictions they must adhere to or can receive. Further aims are to develop a deep understanding of land use focussing on brownfield land, the necessity for its redevelopment and consequences if it is left deserted and barren. The question itself centres on how the Government aims to encourage and drive new development towards brownfield sites or PDL, and whether the policies, legislation, and guidelines they introduce or modify are accomplishing this. Aims and Objectives: To investigate the current regulations, guidelines and policies regarding the re-use of brownfield or previously developed land. To understand whether these measures are strong enough to encourage the use of brownfield or previously developed land, and study their effectiveness. To discover whether the quantity of brownfield land being redeveloped has risen since these regulations and incentives have been in place. To examine the major issues and obstacles hindering the re-use of brownfield land. Research Methodology: This chapter describes the method of data collection and gives reasons why these methods were chosen. The research encompassed three different means of data collection. Documentation, journals and book research. A case study method of research. A question based interview with a property professional. Documents, books and journals from the Government, professional bodies, public libraries and the internet will be reviewed as data sources. These will offer official information on policies or guidelines as well as help to analyse the findings from case studies and the questionnaire. Documentation in this form will help to present reliable, certified and unbiased information on brownfield redevelopment in general and further helpful information. This information will include Government reports, policy statements on the environment and planning, incentive plans, consulting reports of sites carried out by professional bodies, as well as market research and statistics. Through studying this data the researcher will be able to gain an in depth understanding of the regulations surrounding brownfields and their redevelopment, but also more detailed knowledge and comprehension of the many aspects involved. A case study method of research, involving two large scale developments, was decided upon as a reflection of the redevelopment process of a brownfield site. These will give an insight from the beginning all through the various stages to the final new usage being carried out upon the site. It will be possible to measure the success of brownfield redevelopment, primarily it will be successful purely if there is a new use for the site rather than if no redevelopment occurred at all, and it lay derelict. Brownfield redevelopment is a complicated economic, social and environmental phenomenon requiring a close and in-depth study. Further to these studies a questionnaire interviews conducted with developers for property investment and development companies, to gain a developers viewpoint on the subject of brownfield redevelopment. Five professionals were contacted and asked for their opinions on the issue. The answers to important questions on the subject will help determine the current outlook on new development projects and whether professionals are still looking at greenfields. Literature Review: Definition of Brownfield Land/Sites Brownfield sites are found in former industrial, commercial and residential areas normally in cities, however many are also found in older suburbs or small towns. (Greenberg M et al, 2001) Often Brownfield sites can be traced through economic history and the evolution of industrial areas. The industrial revolution caused great heavy industrial development in certain areas across the UK; they located around transport links including rivers, the canal network and railways. As time passed, after the wars, deindustrialisation and industry decentralisation occurred and therefore the old factories and some housing became obsolete, leaving Brownfield sites often in central city zones. The Increased Importance of Brownfields For a long time Brownfield sites were not a major concern for Governments worldwide, they were just derelict or abandoned sites, eyesores, waiting for new owners and uses. â€Å"In the 1990s business and community leaders began to see the successful redevelopment of brownfields as a major policy issue.† (Gorman H S, 2003) Brownfield sites are increasingly important as space is not a multiplying entity; furthermore with planning controls now restricting certain land to remain as open space, land for new development opportunities is harder and harder to come by. Brownfields offer a great alternative development option to Greenbelt (or open space) development. As one of the Governments goals, protection of the environment implies the idea of trying to retain as much open space as possible, as well as preventing urban sprawl. Furthermore in its continued aim for sustainable development, open space is highly important, as well as ensuring new development schemes are energy efficient and as non-detrimental as possible to the environment. One of the central policies to endorse these objectives and impact on brownfield re-use is the introduction of green belts (or green belt land) around settlements where planning permission is extremely hard to gain for any proposed construction. The first official proposal to retain open spaces around developments and provide open space came as early as 1935 made by the Greater London Regional Planning Committee. Since then the codification of greenbelt land and its extension to areas other than London occurred in 1955, with the control policies still remaining valid today. (HMG 2001, PPG2 Green Belts) Green belts now cover approximately 1,556,000 hectares or about 12% of land in England. In PPG2 Green Belts the Government sets out guidelines on the re-use of buildings or sites on green belt land, but there are more strict controls and expansion or extension is almost impossible as it would conflict with the openness of the land. This said there is at a willingness to consider schemes on what is protected, heavily regulated land when all said and done. Overview of Governmental Intervention In the United States the Government there have what is called a ‘smart growth policy which is â€Å"centered on Brownfield redevelopment it directs legislation, dollars, and governments moral powers toward attracting developers and individual investors, non-profit organizations, and community groups to neighbourhoods with underutilized or abandoned properties rather than to pristine Greenfields.† (Greenberg M et al, 2001) As this highlights, by the use of legislation and cash incentives the Government can influence development towards Brownfield sites. The UK Government did not have the same style of strategy under one name like this ‘smart growth policy, but instead had many directives covered under areas such as planning, housing provision targets, fiscal incentives and sustainable development. They have since with the help of research and studies conducted from and by other organisations, designed a ‘national brownfield strategy. Government Targets Since the late 1990s the Government has endeavoured to reach the target set that 60% of new housing in the UK is to be built upon previously developed land. (HMG, PPS3, 2006) â€Å"With our new policies in place, we expect local planning authorities to be able to raise the national proportion of new homes to be built on previously developed land to 60 per cent over the next 10 years.† (John Prescott, House of Commons Debate, 23rd Feb 1998) After this aim was announced, there was great debate over whether it was achievable. It was, and continues to be a high target and therefore measures needed to be taken to ensure its fulfilment. In 1999 Friends of the Earth claimed that the goal was attainable but only if central Government provided more guidance and assistance to local planning authorities, particularly in the case of clean up policy for contaminated land. (Environmental Data Interactive Exchange, 1999) The Government has also set targets for the number of new homes, and al so their, and non-domestic buildings energy efficiency in a movement towards sustainable development. In 2007, Gordon Brown made housing a priority and promised 2 million new homes by 2016, and 3 million by 2020 with a further clause that homes built from 2016 onwards would be zero carbon. (HMG, 2007, Building A Greener Future: Policy Statement) At Budget 2008 strict targets for carbon emissions were set on non-domestic buildings when the Government announced its ambition that all new non-domestic buildings should be zero carbon from 2019. (HMG, 2008) Measures to Influence Development towards Redevelopment of Brownfield or PDL At Budget 2001, the UK Government stated: â€Å"The Government wants to improve the confidence of owners and investors to bring contaminated land back into productive use and assist with the costs of doing so. Budget 2001 introduces a 150 per cent accelerated payable tax credit for owners and investors for the costs they incur in cleaning up contaminated sites. This is part of the Land Remediation Relief (LRR) incentive, contained within the Urban White Paper, November 2000, and introduced in 2001. These measures make the development of these sites more viable, helping to tackle the legacy of previous industrial uses and reduce the pressure to develop Greenfield sites.† The LRR introduced the 150 per cent tax incentive as well as bringing in the possibility for companies to elect that capital expenditure on qualifying land remediation expenditure is allowed as a deduction in computing its profits. Furthermore companies can opt to receive a payable tax credit in exchange for an y qualifying land remediation loss surrendered to the Exchequer the rate of the payable tax credit being 16 per cent of the loss surrendered. The credit is restricted however to the lesser of 16 per cent of the uplifted expenditure or 16 per cent of the companys unrelieved loss for the period. (HMG, Urban White Paper, 2000) It is fair to suggest that the Government is following up on the original policies made and the concerns expressed by Friends of The Earth. Primarily, the LRR has been updated and in doing so planning controls and incentives enhanced. There has also been action taken by the use of surveys and reports completed and recommendations made to the Government. ‘Tax incentives for development of brownfield land: a consultation is a document produced in March 2007, and illustrates the two fiscal, tax incentives the Government has introduced to promote brownfield regeneration. The document is ‘a consultation in which the Government proposes the removal of one of the tax breaks, but the enhancement of the other. The two forms of fiscal incentive offered are firstly an accelerated 150% tax credit which helps with costs incurred in the cleanup of the site. The second measure is landfill tax exemption, introduced in 1996 when landfill tax began. Landfill tax is a tax on the disposal of waste collected by landfill site operators, aimed to encourage waste producers to produce less waste. There are some exemptions, and the one particularly relevant to brownfield regeneration is that which relates to waste arising from the cleanup of contaminated land. It was intended to ensure that landfill tax does not act as a barrier to developing contaminated land. When the relief was introduced in 1996 there were few alternatives to dealing with contaminated land other than landfill, however as time has passed new technologies have emerged, making on site decontamination the preferred option. It is the Governments belief that on site decontamination is the better solution due to the high environmental impacts of landfill itself and its demand for space, the harm to the environment caused by the transportation of this waste, and the securing of recycling materials. These ‘costs to the environment as the Government explains are necessary to consider in the same way as PDL itself. Another area mentioned is that the regulatory environment has changed since 1996, and has altered how waste is handled and regulated considerably. Since October 2007 all waste has had to be treated before it is sent to landfill, and liquid waste has been banned from landfill sites. In 2005 the ‘Hazardous Waste Directive applied increased controls to hazardous waste resulting in the prices for it to be taken as landfill rising sharply, and the paper points out that landfill tax would now only be a small proportion of the overall costs of sending hazardous waste to landfill. Also in this document the Government expresses a desire to update and amend policies if necessary pointing out that all measures taken must be monitored and possibly altered to ensure maximum compliance and success. â€Å"The Government remains committed to these aims and to the continuation of the relief, but after 6 years of operation it is time to consider how the scope and take up of the relief can be improved to help it more efficiently deliver the objectives set out in 2001.† (HMG, Tax incentives for development of brownfield land: a consultation, 2007) It is important that the necessity to potentially alter regulations, incentives or policies to guarantee the best results is acknowledged by the Government, as it shows a willingness to be proactive and manage the issue. Further to this report however the Government carried out its proposed changes to the existing LRR. In the 2008 ‘Pre-Budget Report there are some separations made between PDL itself, and alterations to the conditions of relief given. It is stated that legislation would be introduced in the ‘Finance Bill 2009 extending LRR to cover expenditure on remediating long term derelict land if the land has been derelict since 1st April 1998. Additionally the land will only qualify if the land was already derelict when acquired by the claimant, and moreover a list of qualifying expenditure is published. â€Å"The relief will be available on specified expenditure. The qualifying costs are expenditure on the removal of: post-tensioned concrete heavyweight construction; foundations of buildings or other structures or machinery bases; reinforced concrete pilecaps; reinforced concrete basements; or underground pipes or other apparatus for the supply of electricity, gas,water or telecommunication services or for drainage or sewerage.† (HMG, 2008, Pre-Budget Report) Towards a National Brownfield Strategy In September 2003, English Partnerships produced an advisory document to the deputy Prime Minister having been appointed as special adviser to the Government on brownfield issues. They intended to compose a comprehensive National Strategy for brownfield land. In their report, English Partnerships express a very significant detail that brownfield, or PDL, continues to be created, stimulated by economic and social factors and that a key challenge is to ensure the pace of reuse exceeds the pace of new creation of this land. Their concern is that it is an on-going issue and requires far more than just refocusing new schemes, but to address the subject of this newly created brownfield land. A further chief observation made is that PDL must be differentiated between. There are marked differences, some sites have no need for encouraging policies or legislation to be made for developers to appreciate a new use and realise the profit of carrying out their new planned schemes, these are described as ‘self resolving. There may be little to no time between when the site becomes obsolete, or unused, and then is regenerated in to something different or merely updated. This could be land currently in use, but which once redeveloped may have a higher value, and therefore more commercial value. These sites naturally therefore may be called ‘commercially attractive sites. Fairly evidently the report then distinguishes between ‘marginally viable and ‘non-viable sites, which are reasonably self explanatory, in that they lack attraction to developers due to clean up and preparation costs exceeding potential profits in the latter, or only offering a small profit in the former. Finally ‘non-development sites are explained as being suitable only for ‘soft or amenity use, with their values severely reduced and not necessarily related to the costs of bringing them back in to use. Here more than just the financial returns must be considered, the social costs and benefits are principal and are difficult for the private sector to take in to consideration, overall implying a clear role for the public sector, in more than just a policy making manner, but as a regenerator itself. (Towards A National Brownfield Strategy, English Partnerships, 2003) Government Response to English Partnerships The Government responded to the recommendations made by English Partnerships, with a number of policy creations and claim to be â€Å"successfully encouraging the re-use of more brownfield sites reducing pressure for development on greenfield land.† (HMG, Securing the Future Supply of Brownfield Land, 2008) English Partnerships made nine policy recommendations in their submission to the Government and all of nine of these were accepted in the Governments response, several of which were confirmed in the ‘Housing Green Paper Homes for the future: more affordable, more sustainable, 2007. This Green paper emphasised the necessity for local authorities â€Å"to prioritise brownfield land in their plans and to take stronger action to bring more brownfield land back in to use.† (Syms P, Land Remediation Yearbook, 2008) This document claims that around three quarters of new development takes place on brownfield land compared to less than 60% ten years ago in 1998. Furthermore a year on year reduction in derelict and/or vacant brownfield land is highly promising and hence the stock of this land is diminishing. This relates back to a concern raised by English Partnerships, about the continuing problem of PDL, its growth as land becomes naturally derelict or unused, and the necessity to address this. A Developers Considerations and Perspective: The prime concern for any private developer and their company is unashamedly profit maximisation, and the amount of time before that profit is realized. (Ratcliffe J, Stubbs M, 1996) The property development industry is risky which is why there are both high levels of profit and loss that can occur to developers. Risk carries great significance for the developer of any scheme, and can be the factor that decides whether to pursue the intended development or shelve the plans all together. The process of property development can be split in to a five stage process according to John Ratcliffe and Michael Stubbs, they write that from the initial idea to the disposal of the property at the end, the stages can be divided thus: Concept and initial consideration Site appraisal and feasibility study Detailed design and evaluation Contract and construction Marketing, management and disposal (Ratcliffe J, Stubbs M, Urban Planning and Real Estate Development, 1996) Developers and Brownfield Land Brownfield land varies greatly in its character in terms of size, location and the severity of contamination, while the constant and only common consideration for the developer is profit. The same point can be stressed about greenfield or greenbelt land too although realistically only in terms of size and physical characteristics, and not contamination severity. There are of course a number of other considerations; planning regulations and whether permission will be granted carry great importance, as the project may have to be altered due to planning constraints. The second stage of property development, ‘site appraisal and feasibility study as called by Ratcliffe and Stubbs, during which the developer must research the land thoroughly weighing up its credentials. At this stage the brownfield site or PDL may be rejected on the basis of infeasibility in the developers eyes. This rejection may lead to a different site needing to be considered and utilized, or a change in the scale or intended use of the proposal. When deliberating where to construct their new planned and profitable scheme, the obvious, most simple and least time consuming option, would be a greenfield site. There would have been no previous uses of the site, apart from perhaps agricultural, and highly unlikely a use that would have contaminated the site and thereby demand high clean up costs, or demolition of previous structures. Greenfield sites are very often on land of sole ownership making the task of purchasing the land far more straightforward, than having to trace and, or, consolidate ownership to bring together the parcel of land required and desired for the project. Case Studies: This chapter introduces the case studies of brownfield regeneration that has occurred and relating the projects to some of the measures taken by the Government to encourage development of brownfield sites or PDL. Norwich Riverside Re-development The Norwich Riverside development is a fine example of a successful project on contaminated brownfield land. It is a large site very near to the city centre, and was the largest and most significant site that had become available for redevelopment for years. Therefore it was highly important the best possible use was made of the opportunity. Historical Context The site was originally industrially used, it was close to both the railway and river providing good transport and supply links. As long ago as the early 20th Century the firm Boulten and Paul had located their ironmongers on the site, making many things from agricultural tools to aircraft during the war periods. By the mid 1980s however, owing to deindustrialisation, many of the industrial uses had declined or ceased operations and the majority of the site had become vacant and derelict. Other uses included the Harrington oil and gas works and timber yards were also present. Another user of the site was British Rail and their sidings were too left unused and derelict, leaving the site looking forlorn and unsightly. (David Simmonds Consultancy, 2004, Sargent P, A Place in History) The Site The site itself is large in size, 17 hectares or 42 acres, and is located south east of Norwich city centre on the banks of the river Wensum next to the railway station and Norwich City football club. Due to its previous heavy industrial use, it was highly contaminated and carried a tidal flood risk, therefore much work was necessary to rectify these issues. The site did not have good access either both by road, and for pedestrians and cyclists. The New Development The site was seen to provide an opportunity for major expansion of the city centre which was an aim of Norwich City Council (NCC) as their desire was to attract ‘shed style retailing and limit the shift to ‘out of town. The completed scheme today is mixed use offering residential, in the form of 224 housing units combining town houses and flats most of which with secure parking. There is also a 15% allocation of affordable housing. In terms of retail, there is a food superstore, Morrisons, and 7 other retail units; Boots the chemist, JD Sports, Argos, Mamas and Papas, JJB Sports and Going Places Travel. A further 2 units with service operations, Big Yellow Self Storage Company and STS Holburn Tyre Centre are also present. There are leisure facilities provisions as well with a 14 screen UCI multiplex cinema, a bowling alley (Hollywood Bowl), nightclubs (Square, Brannigans and Time), restaurants (Frankie and Benny, Nandos, Pizza Hut, Old Orleans), bars (Wetherspoons, Norweg ian Blue), and a health club (Fitness Exchange). A major swimming and recreation centre which was particularly important to the council that it be incorporated, as there was a need for this in a central location. (riversidecentrenorwich.co.uk) 1800 car parking spaces including a new six-storey park with 740 spaces provide sufficient car parking for both leisure development and rail users. The railway station itself has been remodelled to integrate in to the adjacent project. New access links with a new inner ring road, as well as pedestrian and cycle connections to the historic King street area. â€Å"Riverside now represents a new quarter that compliments the city centre in accordance with recent Government planning policy guidelines, in a location with existing public transport infrastructure improved by a new interchange for buses, taxis and cyclists.† (David Simmonds Consultancy, 2004) Redevelopment Issues There were a number of serious concerns and questions raised with the major scale redevelopment of Norwich Riverside, from infrastructure issues to planning necessities and development obligations. In 1994 the council first started work with local stakeholders and potential developers designing new planning guidelines for the regeneration of the site, but it was not until 1999 that the first phase of construction was completed. The council had originally assessed the development potential of the site in 1987 after the closure of Boulten and Paul, and their plans envisaged a fine-grain redevelopment of mixed use. Due to these problems with the site, it became well known within the countrys development industry as a difficult project with a significant commercial and investment risk which logically acted as a barrier to attracting backing. Part of the delay, and bearing a great significance to the research question of this project, was that the council were attempting to use the redevelopment of Riverside as a major part of regenerating the city centre and providing services that were previously lacking. Naturally this objective brought with it some major development obligations for the scheme to provide. One such target was to supply a new swimming pool and recreation centre as this was lacking in a city centre location. A very well designed centre was created by Richard Jackson intelligent engineering, and now has a value of  £5.7 million. (Richard Jackson plc, 2009) Further constraints were that the council wished to steer ‘shed style retailing in to this area of the city to rein in the increasing move to ‘out of town shopping becoming prevalent. (Norwich City Council, Riverside development) As is often the case with brownfield redevelopment the site was quite heavily contaminated, evidently this required cleaning up, which was achieved by the use of an innovative soil clean-up method called bio-remediation. Furthermore as mentioned previously, the site was at risk to flooding, and therefore the ground level had to be raised. These are both costly and time consuming processes to complete, over  £5 million was spent remediating the site. Another obstacle that can occur with brownfields and did indeed in this case was serial ownership and the difficulties involved of tracing all owners and forging agreement between them of the intended plans. The Boulten and Paul works were owned by Gazely Properties Ltd having purchased the works after its closure in the 1980s. The railway lands were owned by British Rail Property Board until its privatisation when they were transferred to Railtrack pre Network Rail. These two, Gazely Properties and Railtrack ultimately founded a joint development company on an equal partnership basis. The other land included in the site area was in the possession of NCC. The proposed plan itself for a mix of residential, leisure and ‘shed style retail was acceptable to most members of the local community, some residents rallied against this form of urbanisation due to the aesthetics of the retail not fitting in with the historical city. Despite their efforts however, the council stuck with the plans and agreed that it go ahead as planned with reference to the importance of the food store which would serve the south east of the city. When the site came to ascendancy as a hub

Assistive Technology On Disabled Students Impact Education Essay

Assistive Technology On Disabled Students Impact Education Essay Abstract This study proposes to determine the impact of Assistive Technology (AT) on disabled students in South African higher institutions. The disabled people in any society are generally facing many debilitating quandaries, including physical, emotional and physiological degradation. As a result, empowering people with disabilities to realize their self-esteem as well as enhance their skilling and employability represents an interesting and challenging task to government, industry, interest groups and individuals worldwide. However, the emerging assistive technology provides a unique opportunity to alleviate the challenges of people with disabilities. Exploiting this novel technology, our current goal is to determine the impact of AT on disabled students in South African higher institutions. Randomized control group pre-test and post-test experimental design will be used for impact determination. Cronbach alpha will be used to measure the reliability of the data solicited from participatin g students in a kind of participatory survey. Bootstrapping statistics will be used to analyze the result of the experimental design and correlation will be used to discover relationship between data samples. As a case study, we would like to validate our design using randomly selected students from University of Pretoria, Tshwane University of Technology and University of Witwatersrand, which due to their closeness to the researchers makes the study cost-effective. We are hopeful that our design would be systemic enough to be easily extrapolated into other institutions. The expected contributions of this study are to: (a) explore different types of AT available to disabled students, (b) determine the user-friendliness of the AT, (c) compare the performance of disabled students with non-disabled peers and (d) determine the impact of AT on disabled students in South African higher institutions. Keywords: Assistive Technology, disabilities, South Africa, disabled students 1. Introduction The disabled people in any part of the world are generally facing many debilitating quandaries and they are not experiencing the kind of comfort, dexterity and optimism that most non-disabled people enjoy. The number of people with disabilities, continuous to insistently increase due to high rate of accidents, natural disasters, diseases and increasing number of aging people. For instance, disabled people in South Africa account for 5% (2  255  982) of the total population (Statistics South Africa, 2001), which significantly outgrows the previous statistics of (please supply previous statisticsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.) and in many parts of the world, the story is sympathetic. As a result, the impact of having some more people with disabilities in our society than ever before is immeasurable. The South African government has embarked on encouraging initiatives to have more disabled South Africans obtain formal education as a way to provide succour so that disabled people are better empowe red in the society. For example, the Ministry of Education improvises that South African schools should provide AT services and equipments for disabled students to enable a balanced (free and appropriate) public education. These initiatives make the use of AT practically relevant in our schools be it higher or lower institutions of learning. An emerging AT is any mobile device or infrastructure that can be used to maintain or improve the capabilities of individuals with disabilities (IDEA, 1990). With careful planning and guidance, the vast number of AT devices and software can be potentially beneficial to disabled students (Duhaney Duhaney, 2000). AT can enable people who are suffering from a wide range of natural disabilities to enjoy more comfortable lives. These technologies are being used at home, schools, work places and also in communities as a whole by disabled people (Howell, 1996). The use of AT is allowing people with disabilities to be more independent, productive, self-confident and for them to easily integrate into the mainstream society. The technology, for example, can enable a student with physically impaired hands or arms to be able to operate a computer with a switch or an onscreen keyboard, a mute student to communicate using a device that speaks and a student who cannot walk can be assisted to do so with specialised mechanical devices (Mirenda, 2001). As a result, the impact of AT on disable students in South Africa is undoubtedly enormous. Moreover, not only is AT beneficial for teaching and learning purpose, the living style of disabled students can be greatly improved socially by allowing them, for instance to play games and communicate fluently. However, many issues and obstacles such as lack of AT knowledge, training, funding, poor coordination between service providers and technology developers as well as fear of these technologies are hindering the successful application of AT in the society at large. That is why this study proposes to evaluate the impact of AT on disable students in South African higher institutions. 1.1. Problem Statement and Research Questions Today, the greatest challenge confronting the South African students with disabilities is to smoothly integrate into the society, participate in a competitive educational system and be equipped for the professional economic world. A number of emerging technologies: assistive and adaptive have been developed to cater for disabled students. But, very little literature has been written about these novel technologies. Additionally, the evaluation of their impact on the end-users has also not been widely reported. One way to ensure best outcomes for disabled students in South Africa would be to evaluate the impact of AT on these students. To do so, different types of AT would have to be identified and equal opportunities would have be given to disabled and non-disabled students to compete. Thus, a participatory research is necessary to determine the impact of AT on disabled students in South Africa. The main research question to solve in this study is: what is the impact of AT on disabled students in South Africa? To answer this question satisfactorily, first it is important to identify various AT available and determine their contributions towards improving the academic performance of disabled students in South Africa. As result, following research sub-questions will be squarely addressed in order to solve the main research question. What are the different types of AT are available to disabled students? How user friendly are the available AT to disabled students? Does AT smoothly integrate disabled and non-disabled students? Does the use of AT improves the academic performance of disabled students? How is AT used by disabled students to facilitate social networking? What influence is AT playing in the life of disabled students? 1.2. Goals and Objectives of the Study The core goal of this study to determine the impact of Assistive Technology (AT) on disabled students in South African higher institutions. This could help to uncover some unresolved issues introduced by disabled students on the impact of AT in their learning environments. This goal will be accomplished by implementing the following primary objectives. To identify different types of AT that are available to disabled students in South African higher institutions. To determine the user-friendliness of the available AT to disabled students in South African higher institutions. To determine whether the use of AT smoothly integrates disabled students with non-disabled students. To determine whether the use of the AT improves academic performance of disabled students in South African higher institutions. To determine how is AT used by disabled students to facilitate social networking. To determine the influence that AT is playing in the life of disabled students? 1.3. Expected Deliverables Within a 2 year project leading to an award of MTec degree, it is important to ensure that there are clear expectations for what can be delivered in these timescales. We hope to deliver the following. A comprehensive account of disabled students learning experiences and a clear documentation of the impact of AT on disabled students. A set of recommendations for practitioners, support staff, institutional managers and program developers on ways to manage the challenges of disabled students in the society. 2. Literature Review Most of the recent literature focusing on the impact of ICT on students in Universities across the world can be classified into three sources: Literature and case studies that have been developed from publicly funded studies to determine the impact of AT in higher education exist in academic domains and are mostly inform of case studies (e.g. Skills for Access, DART, ALERT).Other studies that support this include Seale(2006). Research studies that have explored the general education experiences of disabled students exist in both academic and non-academic domains (e.g. BBC, OUCH, SKILL). Other studies that support this include; (Mortimer Crosier, 2006), Shelving et al. 2004 and (Fuller et al. 2004). Research studies that have explored the specific e-learning experiences of disabled students Have generally been conducted in the UK,an example of this is Draffan et al. (2007) in a survey of the use of and satisfaction with AT by disabled students in UK higher institutions. Another survey by Cobham et al. (2001) also tried to explain the specific experiences of disabled students when using AT. The important conclusion from these studies is whether their findings are true for all students, especially the disabled students who may need emerging technology such as AT effective learning? The unique novelty of this study in relation to these studies listed above are abvious.With the use of participatory research methods, this study shall; (a) be a voice for the disabled students; (b) get raw (first hand) information from the uses themselves. This enables to answer the paradigm of Nothing about me, without me since the users are involved in every phase of this study. The important conclusion from these studies is whether their findings are true for all students, especially the disabled students who may need emerging technology such as AT effective learning? In particular, some of the most significant change in the education of students with disabilities in South Africa has been the initiative to adapt the inclusive education theory into their education system (Patton, 1992). This form of initiative is mainly a collaborative setting that includes a content specialist paired with a learning specialist and then leads to sharing of the teaching responsibilities, which will later benefit the education of all students. The use of inclusive education may change from one institution to other, but it clearly indicates that it is extremely important as enabler for students to achieve their ultimate educational goals. The rapid developments in innovative ICT infrastructure, particularly in the field of AT rekindles the hope and aspiration for those who have so long been deprived of opportunities with which life has burdened them: visual impairment, physical disability, hearing impairment and Communication impairments (Levin Scharffenberger, 1990) . More importantly, disability is being recognized as a social construct created by ability-oriented and ability-dominated environments. Traditional methods for studying the impacts of AT on disabled students in South African higher education includes: (a) interviews, (b) questionnaire surveys and (c) focus groups. However, in recent time, there has been a need to develop methods and practices that enable the student voice to be more focus on AT studies (Levin Scharffenberger, 1990). However, it should be clarified that efforts to include disabled students in studies of the impact of AT in the learning environments may need new alternative methods besides the traditional methods. Researcher can draw their learner-centred AT research studies from two related filed methods to analyse the impact of AT on disabled students in universities, these include: (a) participatory design and (b) participatory research. These methods are commonly used for designing AT and to incorporate the related fields of user-centred design, co-design and inclusive design (Hanson, et al., 2007). Participatory design according was defined as th e involvement of disabled students throughout the entire phases of the study (Hanson et al. 2007). This study involves: (a) working directly with the disabled students to fully participate in the study from phase one throughout to last phase, (b) involving the real disabled students in their real contexts, ignoring window dressing to keep the deficiencies of their school secret, (c) a continuous cycle of development and evaluation phases until both the researcher and research participants (disabled student in this case) reach an agreed solution, (d) dual participation between participants (disabled students) and designers in development of key AT methodologies. The benefits of participatory design methods are obvious when researching intensive study on the disabled students and how they use these technologies in daily activities (Davies et al. 2004). The strong in-depth analysis offered by such methods appears to be highly applicable to research studies focusing on hearing the stude nt voice. This study, therefore nominates participatory methods to be used to explore the impact of AT on disabled students in three higher education institutions in South Africa, taking three universities: (a) University of Pretoria, (b) University of Witwatersrand and (c) Tshwane University of Technology as a case study. This study advocates that there is the need for research to be written from the disabled students perspective and that is why participatory research is an appropriate approach for this study. Although most of the educators in south Africa are trying to make sure that the disabled students use the same technology as non-disabled, it has been hard for the disabled students to deal with the fact that most of the software being developed do not accommodate the aspect of inclusive education and design for all (Fischer, 1995). Research Design and Methodology The methodology of this study will try to demonstrate how the use of participatory methods of research will be used to show how the goals and objectives and problems questions of this study were meant. The most common forms of participatory methods are by use of interview plus, questionnaires and focus groups. The first objective (to identify different types of AT that are available to disabled students in South African higher institutions.), this study shall design a template of various AT from different literature study on AT. This AT template is then presented to the research participants (disabled students) to choose what are the different types of assistive technologies they are currently using. The second objectives (to determine the user-friendliness of the available AT to disabled students in South African higher institutions), this study proposes to include in the questionnaire a question that enables the disabled students to select one option from 1-10 how user friendly they think the AT they are using are. The higher the number, the more use-friendly that participant feels about that AT. The third objective (to determine whether the use of the AT improves academic performance of disabled students in South African higher institutions), this study proposes, after ethical approval has been granted from the various university, this study shall ask the University Authorities to provide academic transcripts of the research participants, to see if using these ATs have helped them improve on their academics. The fourth objective (to determine how is AT used by disabled students to facilitate social networking), this study proposes with the use of a questionnaire and interview plus, the research participants will be asked to choose or list the social networks that they are using at that current state and how much easier ATs have helped these students while using these social networks. The fifth objective (to determine the influence that AT is playing in the life of disabled students), this study proposes to have a controlled and experimental sample of participants. Since the South African government encourages the use of inclusive design, most of the ATs are used by both the disabled students and their non-disabled peers. During the interviews and answering of questionnaire, the research participants shall be asked to list how they feel ATs have helped them; both negative and positive responses shall be encouraged. Thus study will encourage these participants to even include non-academic influences of ATs on them. The focus group and interview plus shall be mainly used when the participants and answering to the questionnaire. These forms of participatory research methods shall also be used to enable the research participants to provide any additional information that they feel that this study might have left out. This study shall during the first focus group meeting provide each research participant with the proposed questions that this study intends to use. Each participant shall be asked to first tick which questions they feel are relevant to this study. Using an excel sheet, every question shall be listed in one column and another column showing how many students have chosen a particular question. This number is then divided by the total number of research participants to determine the mean score. The higher the mean score, the more relevant a question is to this study. The same format shall be used when deterring the best relevant data collection tool to use. These mean scores can also be classified as alpha scores. 3.1 Overview of data collection tools The data collection tools that will be used in this project consist of (a) interview plus (b) questionnaire and (c) focus groups. The use of these tools is not unique to research that uses a participatory approach; several general studies of disabled students in higher education have employed these methods. However, what is unique about the use of these data collection tools in this study is that participation influenced the nature and focus of each tool: 4. Project Plan 4.1 Summarised Project Plan WORKPACKAGES March April May June July August September October November Startup/Project Planning Communication Questionnaire Student recruitment Phase 1 all inclusive Phase 2 purposive Data collection Data Analysis Evaluation /Reporting Table 1:Project Plan 4.2 Master Project Plan Work package and activity Outputs Start date End Date WORKPACKAGE 1: Startup/Project Planning Objective: To provide project management for the project 1. Produce project plan, workpackages, and dissemination plan. march Ongoing 2.Reading of project material Gathering literature from library and internet March Ongoing 2. Choose of University to use List of University March March 3. Write Chapter One Presentation of Proposal March June WORKPACKAGE 2: Communication Objective: Maintain communication with Cordinator, and external interested parties Team Communication with Cordinator Minutes of meetings/emails weekly March Ongoing Academic and Student Services Staff University of Minutes of meetings/emails weekly March Ongoing External interested parties (Disability South Africa) Minutes of meetings/emails weekly March Ongoing Focus Groups Minutes of meetings/emails weekly July Ongoing WORKPACKAGE : Questionnaire Objective: Develop questions that will answer the Goals and Objectives Developement of Assisitve Technology Types Questionnaire Questionaire May May Developement of Goals and Objectives related questions Questionnaire May June Revised Chapter One Hand in Research Proposal(Chapter One) June July WORKPACKAGE 3: disabled Student recruitment Phase 1 all inclusive Objective: Participation of max available of disabled students Student Services support and Ethics Committe Acceptance of outline questions and support of project July July (Re)formulate interview questions with disabled students Pilot / Questionnaire acceptable to participants and evaluation of changes made. July August Data Analysis from initial questionnaires and contact with students from Phase 1 Analysis and report on outcomes of initial questionnaire, e-mails and discussions with students. August August WORKPACKAGE 4: Phase 2 purposive Objective: Recruitment of students who agreed to participate during Phase 1 Participatory research of methodology initial discussions,on-going evaluation and implementation Analysis and report on Methodologies August September Interviews/ participation/development of artefacts Analysis of interviews summary report September September WORKPACKAGE 5: Data collection Objective: Systematic Storage and re-formatting of data Collection of Data from participants Raw data available to team September September Accessible Multimedia artefacts Data available to team with captions, text descriptions, etc. September September WORKPACKAGE 6: Data Analysis Objective: Evaluation of all the data and other artefacts collected Analysis of interview data from Phase 2 Synopsis of transcripts accepted by individual participant September October Analysis of all artefacts provided by participants Agreement with participants, as to which artefacts are used for dissemination. Ocotober October Analysis of all external the data gathered in relation to the project. Agreement with team as to inclusion of external data relating to the project e.g. accessibility guidelines etc. October October WORKPACKAGE 7: Evaluation /Reporting Objective: Evaluation of methodologies used and completion of progress and final reports Progress report Draft to Advisory Group and Team Itemised report of progress to date October November Final evaluation of the questions used and Research Question Report Draft summary report detailing how the research questions have been addressed and drawing out lessons learned from the particular institutional context; October November Methodology Critique and analysis Draft report of a critique of the chosen methodology November November Recommendations/Guidelines on impact of the use of Assistive Technologies Draft recommendations and guidance for practitioners, support staff, institutional managers, learners, content providers, instructional designers, technical and program developers November November FINAL THESIS Hand in final research paper November November Table 2:Master Project Plan showing the activities that will be involved